Installation of the district heating scheme - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 23 Words: 6799 Downloads: 8 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Statistics Essay Did you like this example? Q) Establish some contractual and procurement difficulties if your Organisation were to be main contractor for installation of a district heating scheme serving 100 pensioners bungalows. Produce a basic procurement cost plan for contractors to price against. CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION District heating is a system where the heat for an area is produced centrally, and hot water or steam is transported to the buildings through a network of pipes. Heat is transferred into individual properties through a heat exchanger, and then used in conventional heating systems (in flats, for example, there may just be one heat exchanger for the whole block). District heating networks vary widely in scale from individual developments or apartment blocks to whole cities. In Denmark, where district heating accounts for about 60% of the heat supplied, cities such as Copenhagen receive heat from large-scale power stations and energy from waste plants situated up to 40km away. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Installation of the district heating scheme" essay for you Create order Modern district heating can be cost effective and reduce CO2 emissions compared to conventional heating systems. This is because generating heat centrally at large scale can reduce costs compared to generating heat in boilers in individual properties, particularly when combined heat and power (CHP) plants are used. Heat transported through the network can also be converted into cooling using absorption chillers, again improving the efficiency of the system and also providing an option to use heat produced in the summer. District heating is more environmentally friendly than conventional heating, the potential to reduce emissions will depend greatly on the fuel used and the type of central plant that is generating the heat. Modern district heating offers the potential to use a variety of low carbon and renewable heat generation technologies, such as CHP using fossil fuels, biomass or waste, biomass boilers or surplus heat from industrial processes. As an experienced and tested technology, employed effectively in many countries, district heating has evolved significantly from the days when it was first installed. Networks are now highly efficient, with sophisticated heating controls that allow suppliers to maintain the network and consumers to easily manage their heat use. Underground sensors are able to quickly locate any leaks, and back-up generating plant, is used to limit the effect of possible problems with the central generating plant. CHAPTER 2: AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THIS STUDY The main aim is to establish the contractual and procurement difficulties of the main contractor for installation of the district heating scheme serving 100 pensioners bungalows. The aims and objectives can be summarized as follows; To install a district heating scheme to serve 100 pensioners bungalows. To conduct the feasibility study of CHP/CH for district heating. To establish contractual and procurement issues that may occur in this project scheme. To study life cycle costing of the district heating scheme. CHAPTER 3: FEASIBILITY STUDY OF CHP/CH FOR DISTRICT HEATING SCHEMES Any CH development, whether new or refurbished, large or small, should start with a feasibility study, during which the technical and economic viability of community heating, compared with other possible options, will clearly emerge. The application of CHP enhances the combined heat option by providing heat and power with a very high overall efficiency. So this section deals primarily with the feasibility of CHP/CH schemes. Options should be compared using sound economic principles, always ensuring that full life-cycle costing is used. The content of the feasibility study will be far reaching and, in the course of the work, many fundamental decisions will be made as to the technical approach and the most attractive option to be pursued. Once the project development stage is reached it is much more difficult to change course. Consequently the feasibility study needs to be carefully procured, managed and fully discussed before proceeding further. 3.1: Defining the brief Whether the study is being carried out in-house or using external resources, it is necessary to define a brief. This must state the objectives clearly, and provide information on existing buildings and their heating systems, the general aspirations of the organisation commissioning the study, and the time-scale for the study. Any particular issues of concern should be mentioned, but otherwise the brief should not constrain the scope of the study. If external consultants are to be appointed, their selection should be primarily on the basis of the capability, qualifications and experience of the study team and their approach and methodology. The study should include engineering, economics, environmental and commercial issues, together with related health and safety matters, for which a comprehensive team of experts needs to be assembled, often with external consultants working closely with in-house lead personnel. An indication of the economic parameters to be used in assessing options should be provided in the brief, e.g. the test discount rate and the period of analysis to be assumed in a discounted cash flow analysis. Such information will be needed during the study, and early discussion and agreement on these parameters is advisable. It is important to insist that the correct basis of full life-cycle costing is applied to each of the options under consideration. Once the main options have been established, capital costs will need to be estimated, as well as operating and maintenance costs where these are the responsibility of the CHP/CH developer. 3.2: Heat and electricity demand assessment The starting point of a study is the determination of the market for heat, cooling and power. Initially, this involves enlisting support for a scheme from organisations such as the local authority, large hospitals or a university, all of which can help to provide essential core load for a proposed scheme. It is also important to consider the concentration of heat demand which can accure from such potential customers. Cooling by means of absorption chillers offers a further use for heat, particularly at times when heating is not required. The heating, cooling and power requirement for buildings can be obtained from previous data, provided the existing building use is to be remain unchanged, or by energy modelling techniques. It is important that all cost-effective energy-saving measures for the building either be implemented, or at least considered, before determining heat demand. The fundamental minimum requirements of the heat demand assessments are: the temperature requirements of the heating system the determination of peak heat demands annual energy consumption. These datas will enable some approximate economic work to commence. However, the revenues from the production of electricity vary with time of day and time of year, and hence the cost of heat production from a CHP plant will also vary over the years. It will, therefore, be necessary to determine a heat demand profile over the year, at least on a monthly basis and preferably weekly. Monthly heat demand profiles can be estimated using weather data, together with establishing a hot water energy demand profile. In addition, the variation of heat demands over a 24-hour period will be useful, but these data are likely to be available only if a high level of instrumentation has already been installed within the buildings. The hourly heat demand profile is required so that simultaneous heat and power production can be simulated. For electricity, half-hourly data will normally be available for larger users, and monthly data from bills. Consideration needs to be given to the effect of the foll owing on demand profiles for heat and power: metering and charging tariffs if historical data are based on un-metered heat, a change to metered supply normally leads to significant reductions in heat use. there may be cost-effective opportunities to reduce heat demand by adding insulation to the building fabric. liberalisation of the electricity market makes it easier to sell electricity directly to residents on community heating schemes. use of surplus heat for cooling, particularly in summer, when residential heating requirements are low or zero. At the feasibility stage these decisions will not have been finalised and it may therefore be necessary to proceed with a range of possible heat and power demands. 3.3: Heating systems within buildings It is necessary to establish details of existing heating systems within the buildings. Some of these may be unsuitable for connection to CH systems, in which an outline engineering design will be needed for their replacement. Where systems are more compatible, their operating temperatures and pressures need to be established together with an assessment of their effectiveness in meeting current and future needs. If there is some extra capacity available then it may be possible to reduce operating temperatures and flow rates in heating circuits, which will generally be of benefit to the CH scheme. It is also important to establish the method of control used for both time and temperature in order to predict accurately effects on the CH systems. When details of existing systems are available it will be possible to propose a programme of works that will enhance existing systems and yet still be compatible with the proposed CH system. However, several options may have to be considered and cost estimates are prepared for use, in an overall option appraisal. In some buildings, the provision of domestic hot water may represent a significant part of the demand, and there are a number of ways of generating domestic hot water from a CH system. The most energy-efficient schemes will involve taking advantage of the low temperature of the cold water feed so as to cool the community heating return as close as possible to this temperature. This leads to the use of non-storage calorifiers or additional coil surface in cylinders. In larger buildings, two-stage heating, utilising the return water from a space-heating circuit to carry out pre-heating of the cold water feed, is the best solution, provided it should be economical. 3.4: Central Plant Once the heat demand assessment has been made, work can commence on examining the central plant options. The aspects to be covered are: prime mover choice fuel choice, contract flexibility, and security site location and topography, and interfaces with fuel, electricity and CH infrastructure balance between CHP heat and boiler heat provision of standby capacity building to house the plant. It is likely that a number of options will present themselves and each will need to be analysed under similar assumptions to determine the optimum selection. Capital, operating and maintenance costs will need to be assessed for each combination of plant. The CHP operating strategy needs to be developed to establish the most economical method of operation in relation to varying heat and power demand profiles and varying selling prices, e.g. following the heat demand at full output and dumping heat. A spreadsheet-based operating model is essential to ensure that the correct operating strategy has been made and to calculate the annual energy flows, and to permit rapid sensitivity analysis. The optimum CHP plant capacity needs to be determined by considering a range of plant sizes and by carrying out an economic assessment of each. For single-site CHP projects it is important to have a reasonable match between the generated output and the electricity demand. For a CHP/CH system, electricity is often sold in bulk and the site demand must also be taken into account. However, there may be good opportunities for selling electricity to customers who are more directly linked to the scheme, by use of system arrangements. In this case, modelling the CHP plant in relation to electricity demand may need to be considered. The use of thermal storage and heat dumping may be of greater assistance in allowing the CHP plant a higher flexibility in matching demand profiles. There may also be opportunities for tri-generation (heat, chilling and electricity). Some CH schemes are initially established without CHP, due to the large capital outlay involved. Even without CHP, there may still be environmental and economic advantages from load diversification, and further economic benefits from purchasing fuel in bulk. The use of pre-insulated pipes and low NO2, high-efficiency or condensing boilers have helped to make modern combined heat systems robust, environmentally friendly, and economically advantageous. It should be stressed, however, that CHP offers immediate environmental benefits, and long-term economic advantages. 3.5: Heat Distribution systems After the building demands and the central plant location have been determined it is then possible to examine the heat distribution system. In order to analyse the network rapidly and to calculate costs, computer software is essential. For large schemes, only the primary mains, together with sample areas of sub-distribution mains, will need to be analysed at this stage. The more difficult aspect is to determine which routes for CH pipe work are technically feasible and cost-effective. Considerable assistance may be obtained by consulting ordnance Survey maps. These are now available on CAD format but at a significant cost. However, there is no substitute for an informed site survey, and a detailed examination of other utility services drawings. Within the feasibility study it will be necessary at least to identify any major constraints to routes, e.g. road and rail crossings, the presence of underground sewers, railway tunnels, etc. In selecting routes the use of open, grassed areas will lead to significant cost savings, as with the avoidance of major roads. Consultation with the Local Authority Planning and Highways Department is essential. 3.6: Optimisation This is the most complex phase of a feasibility study, where the various options available for CHP plant, heat distribution and building heating systems need to be assembled into a number of scheme options all with their individual sets of cost and revenue streams. Some cases may be simplified by a process of logical comparison, but normally it will be necessary to compare the options using discounted cash flow analysis, and hence to determine the preferred option on the basis of maximising net present value or internal rate of return. Some of the system optimisation issues that are likely to need evaluation are given below. 3.6.1: Operating temperatures A high flow temperature will result in a larger temperature drop, lower flow rates and hence smaller pipe diameters can be used. This capital cost advantage will be offset by the need for more expensive building connections and possibly higher heat production costs, depending on the CHP plant selected. 3.6.2: Operating pressures The option exists to run the system at a lower operating pressure by over-sizing the network; the extra cost incurred should be compared with savings from using the cheaper direct connection method to link building heating systems to the community heating network. Pumping costs also need to be considered, particularly for larger systems, where higher design pressure reduces the amount of booster pumping required. The topographic variation will also need to be considered when deciding upon operation pressure. 3.6.3: Size of scheme A smaller scheme may be more compact and have a relatively inexpensive network, but larger schemes may result in economies of scale for the CHP plant arising from higher efficiency and lower capital cost per kW. The phased expansion of the scheme also needs to be considered, as does ways in which this might affect the plant and the network design. 3.6.3: Heat meters The installation of heat meters will result in lower buildings energy use and reduced operating costs. If the individual dwellings are equipped with heat meters, energy savings should be compared with the additional capital cost and consumer administration charges. It is also possible that the provision of heat meters for each dwelling may be the only way to achieve market acceptability by residents and energy developers. In addition, the inclusion of heat meters will have a positive effect on Standard Assessment Procedure rating (SAP). 3.6.4: Building heating systems The conversion of a heating system to more compatible operating conditions will involve additional capital cost, but if it results in better plant selection or increased heat sales it may be justified. One example is converting steam heating at a hospital to low temperature hot water heating suitable for connection to a community heating network. 3.6.5: Improvements to building fabric Some buildings, fabric insulation improvements will be cost-effective in energy terms. The economic advantage is not as great when the building is supplied by CHP/CH as it would be for small conventional boilers or electric space heating, because the marginal cost of heat is lower. There is, however, a financial advantage in reducing peak heat demands as the capacity of the CHP plant and the heat distribution network can be reduced. The resultant saving in capital cost needs to be included in the economic assessment of insulation measures. Once the main options have been established, capital costs will need to be estimated as well as operating and maintenance costs where these are the responsibility of the CHP/CH developer 3.7: Revenues from heat and electricity sales 3.7.1: Heat sales A good understanding of a customers current and likely future costs for conventional heating is required in order to judge the maximum heat sales income available. These costs will include fuel, operating and maintenance and provision for future boiler replacement. It will be necessary to structure a heat sales package so that the advantages can clearly be seen. At feasibility level there will need to be a sufficiently large discount to be confident that this level of income can be obtained for the period of analysis. A long-term commitment is unlikely to be obtained at this stage and information on existing costs may be limited, so a cautious approach may be needed. The situation is clearer in the residential sector where the costs of the conventional individual boiler systems are generally well established. The main options available in the residential sector are: sales to individual residents by means of a fixed charge related to size of dwelling sales to individual residents based on measuring the heat energy actually used (dwelling heat meters) sales to individual residents based on the measurement of actual energy used by a block of flats and an apportionment based on size of dwelling/occupancy. Pre-payment systems can be used to collect either fixed or variable charges or a combination of both. Some consideration should be given to assessing the likely levels of bad debt where prepayment systems are not installed, and bad debt costs may need to be incorporated in the economic analysis. 3.7.2: Electricity sales Where CHP plant is installed, it is vital to obtain the maximum income from the electricity produced. Typically, a 10% increase in electricity sales will improve the internal rate of return (IRR) of a project (see section 1.10) by 2%, whereas a 10% increase in heat sales will improve the IRR by 1%. The CHP/CH company may opt to sell electricity in bulk to the host public electricity supplier (PES), which will normally offer terms on a p/kWh basis for electricity generated at different times of the day and year seasonal time of day (STOD) tariff. However, if the CHP/CH company can supply electricity users directly (this may include residents themselves) a much better return can be obtained. Among the more favourable options that exist, (following the liberalisation of the electricity market in 1998) is the sale of electricity direct to residents and other customers. A summary of the options is as follows: sale to the host PES sale to a second tier supplier, i.e. other PESs and oth er suppliers of electricity direct sale to customers as a second tier supplier. This implies pool membership for an aggregate supply of more than 500 kW sale under the non fossil-fuel obligation (NFFO) (only for energy-from-waste projects which have bid for this arrangement in advance). sale through the pool (this entails having pool membership and is more appropriate for projects in the range 30 MWe-50 MWe) sale as an on-site generator to other customers on the same site. It will normally be helpful to use the conventional route of sale to the host PES for the base case analysis, with the other options considered as possible improvements that can be investigated, depending on the scale of the project and the resources of the study. An element of negotiation will be needed in most of these options. As a result, definite figures are not likely to be available at the feasibility stage and a range of results may be presented as a sensitivity analysis. The sale of electricity as a second tier supplier may be of particular interest to CHP/CH schemes because there will be the opportunity to market heat and electricity together to customers on the community heating scheme. Selling two utility services may also bring benefits in metering and charging arrangements. This option is therefore discussed further below. If a CHP/CH scheme is to undertake to sell electricity direct to customers, additional arrangements will be required, for example: a top-up and standby purchase arrangement for times when the generation is less than customer demand (including times of CHP plant outage); as a pool member a second tier supplier can purchase this power direct from the pool a contract for selling spill power for times when more power is generated than customers demand either the payment of use-of-system charges, the purchase of existing electricity infrastructure or the installation of new cables in order to transfer power to the customers. In the domestic sector, the creditworthiness of customers should be considered and the possible need for a form of prepayment. The management of debt collection is a customer care issue, and disconnection policies need to be fully developed if customers are to be retained in the long term. 3.8: Development Programme An important output from the feasibility study is a development programme. This is required first to permit the construction of cash flows for capital expenditure, and second to enable advance planning of subsequent stages. A separate, more detailed programme may be produced covering the period of development from the conclusion of the feasibility study to the start of construction, if the route to achieve this is sufficiently clear. It is also worth establishing a watching brief on all work involving renewal of underground services, so that opportunities may be taken to coordinate projects, thus reducing costs and disruption. Issues to consider when drawing up the programme are: the need for a further project definition stage the need for further site surveys and investigations consultation with customers and adjacent building owners and residents planning applications (and associated environmental statements) Building Regulations applications energy rating and emission improvements preparation of invitations to tender tender period short-listing construction companies short-listing energy developer companies short-listing operating companies assessment of tenders and final negotiations of contracts mobilisation site clearance construction commissioning and testing operation and maintenance. Supervision during construction is of paramount importance in order to secure the necessary quality of system. 3.9: Economic Appraisals At the heart of any economic appraisal are the cash flows, a set of annual capital, operating and maintenance expenditures, and annual revenues from the sale of heat and electricity. These cash flows are normally evaluated in real terms. To compare scheme options, and determine whether the project is economically feasible, there are a number of arithmetical calculations based on the cash flows. It is essential that, when conducting an economic appraisal, full life-cycle costs are used to compare the various options. Simple payback period Defined as the period in which the initial investment is recovered by the annual saving. Generally this approach is too simplistic where the capital expenditure may be spread over a number of years, and where the income may vary from year to year. It is therefore not recommended. Net Present Value (NPV) To calculate the NPV it is necessary to define the cost of borrowing capital (or lost income from capital which could have been invested elsewhere) and the period for the analysis of the project. Internal Rate of Return (IRR) This can be defined as the test discount rate that results in a net present value of zero. IRR is less robust than NPV as it can lead to the selection of a smaller-scale project which, although generating a higher return, involves less capital so that the total value of the income stream is lower than the maximum potential. Both NPV and IRR calculations are available within most spreadsheet software packages. The above parameters are normally sufficient to compare options and present the results to the client organisation for a decision to proceed further. An appraisal by a financier is also likely to involve the calculation of tax implications and debt cover ratios. As an illustration of an economic appraisal, two approaches are outlined below. From the perspective of a building owner who wants to examine the cheapest method of supplying heat and power to the building or groups of buildings. The economic analysis would assemble cash flows for capital and operating costs for both the CHP scheme and the alternative approach of conventional boilers. The CHP scheme would involve significant initial capital and have an income stream for surplus electricity sales. The conventional approach will have investments in future boiler plant scheduled for future years. The NPV approach enables these varying cash flows to be summed to give a single figure; the NPV in this case being the net present cost for supplying the site with heat and power over a defined period. If the CHP/CH option gives a lower cost then it is the more economical option. From the perspective of an energy developer company, cash flows will be established for capital investments and income from both heat and electricity sales. The heat and electricity selling prices will be related to the market for these energy products. An IRR can be calculated for the project investment and the NPV for a given discount rate. The CHP/CH option with the highest NPV will be selected and the IRR must be greater than the minimum required by the energy developer company, taking account of the risks in the project. It is worthwhile investigating whether any local major consumer, such as a local authority, is willing to connect all their buildings to a scheme. This can reduce the investment risk significantly and improve cash flow. The question of economic viability cannot be separated from an analysis of risk, particularly where project finance is the route employed. It will be necessary to carry out an analysis in which as many of the costs and performance figures as possible can be contractually underwritten before presenting the results to a financial institution for a view on financial viability. A sensitivity analysis is of assistance in identifying which of the many parameters are the most important when considering the risk to the economic performance of the scheme, and also for indicating the range of likely outcomes. From this analysis the advantages of obtaining longer-term fuel purchase contracts or heat and power sales contracts can be judged. Some community heating schemes are init ially established without CHP, due to the large capital outlay involved. It may, however, be instructive to consider the economics of a boiler-only community heating option so that the benefits of the CHP plant itself can be separately demonstrated. 3.10: Environmental Assessments A preliminary environmental assessment should form a part of the feasibility study, identifying both the advantages and disadvantages of CHP. 3.11: Health and safety Any construction project is covered by the Construction Design and Management (CDM) regulations. The aim of these regulations is to ensure that safety issues are considered from the start of the project, and this may include the feasibility stage. It will be necessary to appoint a planning supervisor and to carry out an outline design risk assessment. CHAPTER 4: Contractual Issues 4.1: Works contracts The EU Directive is implemented in the main by the Public Works Contracts Regulations 1991 (SI 1991:2680). The basic qualifying threshold is currently set at special drawing rights (SDR). The rules apply principally to building and civil engineering works together with associated activities such as installation work. Public work concessions are subject to a more relaxed regime under the rules. Following the adoption of Council Directive 97/52/EC on 13 October 1997, amending the EU public sector directives to align with the new Government Procurement Agreement (GPA), all thresholds for the public sector should now be expressed in SDR. Where the value of the contract exceeds the threshold, contracting bodies are required to publish a prior information notice giving the essential characteristics of qualifying works contracts following decisions to approve the planning of works. A contract notice should be published in the Official Journal when offers are sought in relation to a works c ontract. When inviting tenders, negotiated procedures may be used only in exceptional circumstances. The choice is mainly between open and restricted procedures under which all tenderers must bid against the same specification and terms and conditions of contract. The negotiated procedure allows a preferred bidder to be chosen before the final terms of the contract are agreed. There are strict provisions on technical standards requiring the use of European standards in tender documentation in preference to national ones. The award of the contract must be either on the basis of the lowest price or the most economically advantageous tender. If this latter test is used a contracting authority should specify which further elements would be relevant, such as technical merit, delivery dates, after-sales services, running costs etc, when possible in order of importance. Unsuccessful bidders can obtain reasons for rejection of their tender so the contracting authority must maintain compliance records. After the award of the contract, new or additional work can only be carried out in certain very limited circumstances. 4.2: Enforcement Any contractor or potential contractor that can prove that it has been prejudiced by the failure to apply the procurement rules correctly will have a cause of action against the contracting authority or utility in national courts. Under the UK implementation of the enforcement directives (there are a general remedies directive and a more particular utilities remedies directive) it is not, however, possible to set aside a contract once it has finally been entered into. In such a case the only remedy would be damages CHAPTER 5: Procurement Issues 5.1: Supplies The EU Directive (93/36/EEC) is implemented by the Public Supply Contracts Regulations 1995 (SI 1995:201). The supply rules apply where a contracting authority seeks to purchase or hire certain goods. The qualifying threshold is currently SDR 200 000. Again, negotiated procedures are the exception. As with the works rules, a contracting authority will usually employ the open or restricted procedures. There are requirements to publish a prior information notice above 750 000 ECU for contracts of the same product and a contract notice in order to attract offers. The comments in section above on award criteria, technical specifications and maintaining records of awards also apply to the supply rules. 5.2: Services The EU Directive is implemented by the Public Services Contracts Regulations 1993 (SI 1993:3228). Services are defined in the rules by exclusion they do not include contracts of employment or service, works (under the works rules), certain utilities-related services or services concessions. The value threshold is set at SDR 200 000. As per the works and supply rules, provisions are made for prior information notices above 750 000 ECU for contracts falling to the same category of services. A distinction is made between services (e.g. maintenance and repair of vehicles and equipment, accounting, architectural services, property management services) which are subject to the full tendering procedures and services (e.g. legal, education and vocational, recreational, cultural and sporting services) which are subject to limited tendering procedure requirements. 5.3: Utilities EU Directive 93/38 deals with works, supplies and services in respect of utilities. The Directive has been implemented in the UK by the Utilities Contracts Regulations 1996 (SI 1996: 2911). The Regulations list classes of bodies identified as utilities. The rules also list specified activities (such as the supply of gas or electricity). If an entity falls under the former list and is engaged in an activity under the latter list, then the utilities rules will apply. The thresholds are ECU 5 million in the case of works contracts and ECU 400 000 for supplies and services in the energy, water, and transport sectors and ECU 600,000 for supplies and services in the telecommunications sector. The main difference between the utilities directives and the general sectors directives is the more flexible procedure that can be used in the former case. Again, there is a choice between the use of the restricted, negotiated and open procedures and time limits/procedures are set out. The rules on aw ard criteria, standards and record keeping are similar to those for the general sector. The specific procurement rules to be applied to a CHP project will depend on the precise characteristics of each project. However, it is likely that most CHP projects, if caught by the procurement regime, will fall within the scope of the utilities regulations. CHAPTER 6: LIFE CYCLE COSTING OF DISRICT HEATING SYSTEMS Many problems have been experienced with the operation and maintenance of many district heating schemes in the UK, and several authorities have been involved in analysing schemes to establish more precisely the nature of faults and difficulties. Schemes investigated have ranged in size from as small as 30 dwellings through systems serving 150-300 and up to 2000 dwellings. Detailed evaluation of individual sites indicates that faults were technically soluble and capable of correction. Many problems experienced were due to the fact that while financial and engineering decisions taken at the time of the original design and installation in the late 1960s or early 1970s were, and can be proved to have been, reasonable in the light of information available at that time, they were subsequently adversely affected by external influences such as the oil price crisis, the development of natural gas, and the need for energy conservation. Many schemes were also halted, or substantially reduced in scale, during the installation stage with resultant detrimental effects on operational efficiencies and economies of scale. 6.1: Evaluating the options The options available to local authorities include retention, refurbishment/upgrading or removal, and in order that a balanced judgement can be made it is essential that before large-scale capital investment is made in any existing or future scheme, each application is evaluated in both technical and economic terms over the expected useful life of the system. Such technical and economic studies should preferably contain reference to any large-scale capital expenditure involved on the basis of public sector investment appraisal methods employing approved NPV/IRR techniques, acceptable to economists in both local and central government. It is also essential in evaluating the nature of possible future schemes that these should also be approached on the same basis. Any overall analysis should include reference to the following factors: operational efficiencies and costs per kWh accounting procedures and cost assessments to tenants administrative problems associated with housing management levels of account arrears and cost collection problems system breakdowns and condition of boiler plant, underground mains and dwelling internals metering implications with regard to future operational costs and efficiencies cost quantification of unmetered losses and identification of single pipe loop systems cost quantification of any water losses and investigation into water treatment and make-up water meters financial effects resulting from systems operating below design capability effects of tenant energy conservation on plant loads and efficiencies investigation into the effects of the provision of additional tenant controls central plant efficiencies and electronic meters to measure heat at the boiler house wall evaluation of alternative fuels/refuse-derived fuel (RDF)/CHP, refuse incineratio n, etc possible introduction of pre-payment heat controllers existing and future maintenance procedures economic appraisal of existing systems in the long term availability of resources and possible use of private sector finance. While several of the items listed may be considered contentious in certain instances it is essential that the implications of both present and future actions should be fully appreciated. 6.2: Investment Analysis In evaluations of this nature the options include various strategies from merely returning the heating system to a viable operating state through to a situation whereby full financial control can be maintained over the operation of the system and the final option considers removal of the existing system and the provision of suitable replacement systems which would not be based on the principle of district heating. A common feature of each option is to determine the varying life expectancy of the equipment and components of each of the systems contained within the options, and from this it is possible to determine the overall useful life of each option. The assessment of such life expectancies is an engineering judgement and is based on data issued by the BRE, BSRIA, etc. However, it is clear that to maintain a viable operating system on an ongoing basis, the capital cost profile incurred at the initial refurbishment stage will recur at some point in the future when the system requir es a second and subsequent refurbishment(s) and it is important to reflect this in the investment appraisal. It is important that the scheme owner be fully aware of the basis on which the analysis has been prepared. This will prevent misunderstandings arising because of the selection of an appraisal review period which may not necessarily reflect the refurbishment costs for each option in the particular year in which they will ultimately be incurred. However, extending the review period to cover the whole of the major cost cycle resolves this presentational difficulty and this is the approach adopted in the economic appraisal procedure described. The scheme owner should appreciate fully the recurring nature of the respective cost cycles if they wish to maintain an ongoing viable system, and consideration can be given to the development of a separate fund to be set aside during the initial life expectancy of the equipment to provide for its eventual replacement. It could be suggested that where the review period is less than the full cycle of any major component part of the system, this could lead to confusion and misunderstanding in interpreting the financial implications. For example, it might be suggested that credits should be made in calculations in respect of the unexpired life element of any particular component of the system at the end of the review period. This would, however, undoubtedly cause confusion since it appears unlikely that any sum so credited would be realised should the system be terminated at that time and therefore the capital cost of operating the system for the review period would be in excess of the sum arrived at by that principle. Alternative calculations can also be made on the basis of lease rentals for the review period, but this may be open to confusion because it may not recognise the ongoing leasing cost commitment for the unexpired period of asset life on items such as mains and meters, etc, beyond the review period. Obviously, an ongoing liability would be present even if the system were terminated at that point. It is essential that the presentation of investment appraisal information clearly demonstrates the capital costs of providing a viable and ongoing system for each of the options under consideration. It is clearly important to emphasise the recurring nature of the capital costs involved and the presentation of information is somewhat complicated by the differing useful lives of the major component elements within the systems. A cycle of cost based on the major asset life expectancy must, therefore, be established in order to assist in determining the true cost of providing an ongoing long-term system. In conclusion, it is important to appreciate that certain technically feasible options may be eliminated by political, legal or financial constraints. CHAPTER 7: REFERENCES 1). BS 8211, part 1: British Standard Code of Practice on the Energy Efficient Refurbishment of Housing Applications Manual; part 1 Energy Efficient Refurbishment of Housing British Standards Institution, Chiswick High Road, London. 2). Programme of Research, Development and Demonstration on District Heating; 1987, Technical and Economic Assessment of New Distribution Technology 3) Community Heating: UK Action Plan by Gill Owen. CHPA, 1992. World Energy Council 4) District Heating/Combined Heat Power. World Energy Council, 1991. Danish District Heating Association. 5) Electricity production connected to the local network: a guide, October 1996. Association of Electricity Producers, District Energy Schemes Coming in from the Cold by Dennis Jenkin. Gas Matters, 1997. EconoMatters Ltd. 6) Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers; CIBSE guide Book B. CIBSE 1986. 7) Water Treatment in Danish Community Heating Systems. Danish District Heating Association, June 1995. 8) Energy saving trust, Potential for Microgeneration. Study and Analysis. EST, London, 2005.

Female Vs. Male Answers - 1401 Words

When faced with fabricated images of beauty on magazines and billboards, the average everyday person begins to objectify themselves, leading to feelings of self consciousness and humiliation. Now imagine, that with all the different types of medias nowadays there are scantily clad men/women everywhere. Covers with photoshopped images of â€Å"perfection† have now become the new norm and society is feeling the pressures to keep up. The average American walks past and sees about 3,000 advertisements per day, which can do a number on healthy everyday individuals let alone people who are considered â€Å"overweight† by society’s standards. This research paper will talk about the results of a body image survey, comparing and contrasting why female vs male answers are different and how the rest of the world (outside of oakmont) is reacting to body image controversy. The students and faculty of Oakmont Regional High School, much like the rest of America, have a distorte d sense of body image, due to the media and the photoshopped models that adorn their ads. A survey relating to body image was given out to approximately ____ people. This anonymous survey first asked them to state their gender, race and age. That way the data could easily be grouped for male vs female responses. It also allows the data to be potentially grouped by race (such as American Indian/Alaska Native, Asian, African American, Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, and White) however Oakmont has very littleShow MoreRelatedMajor Types Of Major Depressive Disorder1551 Words   |  7 PagesIn 2013 8.1% of females, and 5.1% of males in America reported having a major depressive episode in the previous year. (National Institute of Mental Health, 2013). 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Imapact evaluation of Pantawid Pamilyang Pilipino Program Free Essays

Regular monitoring of the household beneficiary database 2. Spot Checks 3. Quantitative Impact Evaluation (3-Wave Design) (34. We will write a custom essay sample on Imapact evaluation of Pantawid Pamilyang Pilipino Program or any similar topic only for you Order Now Qualitative Evaluation 5. Monitoring by a National Independent Advisory and Monitoring Committee Preliminary results of the Pantywaist Paying Filipino Program First Impact Evaluation (2011) 3 Objectives of the Impact Evaluation The II is designed to assess: 1 . Current effects of Pantywaist Family, Conditional Cash Family, Transfer Program ; Impact on use of health services and health outcomes ; Impact on schooling Impact on consumption 2. Different impact on different groups Geographic areas Gender IP status Relative poverty More children stay in school, with better chance to graduate from grade school 76 % Day Care/ Pre-school 65 % 98 % Elementary School 93 % Regular attendance among 12-14 year olds 10 percentage points higher in enrolment rate in day care or pre-school 96 % 5 percentage points higher in enrollment rate in elementary in regular attendance rate 91 % in elementary high school Pantywaist Households Non-pantywaist Households 4 More families prioritize education and health in their household budget Pantywaist families spend: 33% more on MEDICINE MEDICAL SERVICES 36% more on EDUCATION = household budget More children use health services 80. 6 % 74. 9 % Percentage of children O – 5 years old 70 63. 3 % 55. 3 % 50 Non-pantywaist Households Pantywaist 33. 3 % 20 10 16. 9% Having their weight monitored Taking determine pills Taking Vitamin A 5 More pregnant mothers get health care 54. 2% 63. 6% with 4 prenatal care visits Non -Pantywaist : with prenatal care Pantywaist: 26. 9% 36. 4% with postnatal care within 24 hours after delivery Without prenatal with postnatal Pantywaist: with postnatal care Without Conclusions Based on the initial findings, Pantywaist Family: ; Has strong and consistent impact on the key indicators targeted by the program in line with other ACT programs around the world. ; Is on track in reaching the program objectives set by DEWS 6 Future Plans and Directions On Impact Evaluation ; Conduct of 2nd and 3rd Wave Impact Evaluation in October 2013 and October 201 5 respectively ; Conduct of specialized studies on: ; Infant and Maternal Health ; Gender ; Indigenous Peoples . Pad ; Family Development Sessions ; Transition ; Local governance (supply side) 7 Thank you you. How to cite Imapact evaluation of Pantawid Pamilyang Pilipino Program, Papers

Angle of Vision free essay sample

I see and hear many things happening around me. I am close to many other people and the doorways to various stores. As the people walk by me there Is a small gust of wind from behind them that feels like when a car drives by you on the road. This place Is so very calm. A few people sit down next to me, and they all chat quietly while drinking Struck. Everyone that is walking through the lounge and talking with their friends seems to be having a good time Just hanging out.Most people are smiling. I hear people whispering and laughing. One student walks quickly with an unhappy look on his face. Some people are sitting here listening to their pod and studying. The quiet buzz from their pods is calming. With everything going on in this one single room it still seems very quiet and peaceful to This room Is so noisy I cant even stand to be In here. We will write a custom essay sample on Angle of Vision or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Someone spilled their drink all over the floor. It made a huge mess. It looks Like It has Just rained Inside the building since there Is a huge puddle now.Some of the drink landed on the wall and Is now running down the wall Just Like a drop of rain. It has gotten really noisy with any people walking through to go to dinner. They are stomping down the stairs as a herd of elephants would walk through the plains. Someone gets bumped when they are walking down the stairs and yells. People are talking loudly to their friends and laughing. As the crowd of people move downstairs not many people are left. Most people are starting to leave.There are very few people in here now and most are headed to their room to go to study, relax, or sleep. The quiet is so different from all of the noise earlier. Analysis I decided to use Sheen Lounge as my observation spot because It seemed Like a alma and place to sit where I could observe the surroundings. There are many businesses, people, and places to sit inside Morris so it felt as a very dominant place to make observations. With people going through here to go to lunch or dinner or just to go to classes it was an extremely busy setting.I used a several different strategies in my essays. I used figurative language in my essay quite frequently. When I talked about someone spilling their drink all over the floor and it running down the wall, I said that it looked like it had rained all over the room. I also used a simile in my essay. When I talked about how it got really noisy inside this certain room I said it sounded like a herd of elephants walking through the plains. In my positive view I used the couches as my focus point. This Is where I sat and observed everything that happened.As I said In my positive view everyone walking through with their friends having a good time was also another focus point for me. Another example is the unhappy student. This is an example of word choice. Noise it almost seemed impossible to focus on what I was doing at the time. Now that I look back on it I dont know how people do homework in the lounge during the day. I used a good example or word choice in my negative view. I said that it has gotten really noisy and it sounds like elephants running through the plains.This gives me a very vivid visual picture in my mind. Now that my views are stated I want to end by saying that the Sheen Lounge is not the best place to observe or the best place to do anything except be loud and playful. Using sentence structure, word choice and simile shows exactly what you want the audience to see. By changing around a word it could be taken as positive or negative. In conclusion you always have to capture a mental picture for your audience, otherwise they wont know what you are talking about.

Marketing Concepts Marks and Spencers Essay Example

Marketing Concepts Marks and Spencers Essay Per Una believe they â€Å"deliver high quality style for the modern woman. † This objective drives the company resulting in a turnover of more than ? 423. 5 million in 2006/2007. Per Una was detrimental to the revival of Marks and Spencer and it accounted for one quarter of their total women’s wear sales last year. Born from George Davis in 2001, the label tries to replicate the Italian catwalk trends through â€Å"safe fashion† that is â€Å"trendy and stylish. With this in mind is Per Una achieving and retaining their initial vision in this competitive fashion market? Procedure The information has been gathered from various sources and in different manners and media, in order to gain a wide variety of viewpoints and objectives to provide an accurate overview. Marketing Positioning and Segmentation Positioning The fact that â€Å"Marks Spencer has a broad demographic appeal to both UK men and women, although it is primarily the â€Å"safe haven† for 4 5+. Of particular note is that MS reports that the over 45 age group accounts for 75% of turnover†,( Mintel, 2007) thus the report, along with the information derived from mintel and its’ own primary research, has identified the key challenge for Per Una is to appeal to more 30’s through alteration of the brands positioning. The sub-branding, and fast fashion segmentations implicated will contribute to this objective. Sub-branding The M S approach of segmenting the product offer insight that clear sub-brands can go some way towards enabling the retailer to cater across the trend spectrum without alienating anyone. † (Mintel report, 2007). Per Una have distinctively sub-branded various garments in order to target specific segments of the market. This positioning exposes them to a hugely increased percentage of the market, with petite ranges, evening wear ranges, extra leg length ranges etc. Fast fashions For many people incremental time (and energy), now has mor e value than incremental money. We will write a custom essay sample on Marketing Concepts Marks and Spencers specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Marketing Concepts Marks and Spencers specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Marketing Concepts Marks and Spencers specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Thus in fashion, much of the independent sector still â€Å"expects to be placed six months in advance, yet fast fashion companies like Zara, Hennes Mauritz and Topshop are aiming to cut lead times from design studio to store display to as little as 15 days, a model now being emulated by capsule collections from Marks Spencer†, thus subsequently Per Una. This means that the label have segmented themselves in order to be in a position to compete with more â€Å" youth – orientated† brands, who deliver a â€Å"disposable fashion† concept so popular with the younger market of today. Product category extension As well focusing this branding technique upon the garments, Per Una has also created their own electrical range of products. Although this is an interesting move by a clothes brand, if the products can offer some sort of correlation in term of purchasing psychology, connection between the two types of products i. e time saving ethos, will greatly influence the purchasing decision. Appeal of â€Å"youth – orientated† brands simultaneously However, these brands that pose Per Una so much competition are also satisfying their older shoppers as well. From the information which the report has derived from these 45 + consumers, it has discovered that the mature shopper will look to the younger segmented and positioned brands in order for an opportunity to keep in touch with â€Å"hot trends† and â€Å"catwalk styles†. Yet, currently the older shopper does not regard Per Una in this light, as a pioneer of cheaper Italian fashion trends The report has managed to distinguish the segmentation of Per Una consumers based on the report’s primary and secondary research 1. Middle-class, loyal 2. Convenient opportunist 3. Product intentional 4. Comparison customers 1. This segment will have been shopping in MS for years, just as their parents will have, thus subsequently trust and have become devoted to the Per Una label because of its’ associations. It is an integrated part of their shopping habit. 2. This segment can be identified by the unpredictable patterns of their purchasing in the Per Una stores. They perhaps shop there because they are passing through after visiting the food hall of MS. 3. Product intentional consumers are shoppers who have a preconception of what they intent to purchase and their purchasing decision is difficult to be altered once a product is in mind. . Comparison customers are characterized by their tendency to shop around and analyze the competitors. These people are hard to please and are always looking for the most competitive prices. Marks Spencer target these segments by very carefully selected advertising. 4 P’s of the organization Product Does Per Una have a distinctive style over its competitors? Is it really maintaining the level of â€Å"catwalk† style they say they achieve? Trend Analysis A trend analysis has been undertaken comparing stock lines from the Per Una collection against the key trend featured in Vogue. Fashion Vogue trends autumn/winter 2007 ww. vogue. co. uk (1)-(6) Per Una: Per Una effectively follows this trend but seems to add a mature edge onto styles. The results is dresses with a neckline that is slightly too high or mid length tops. The use of velvet does not enhance but hinder the designs. Per Una: Per Una has produced a glamorous evening collection yet the designs seem to be encased in a struggle; modern and on trend versus middle age mid calf length. The dramatic floor length gown has not been produced and even though many of the dresses are in the right fabrics and colours only a small minority of the collection oozes catwalk glamour. Per Una: Per Una has failed to replicate this trend in the collection. Per Una: Much of the knitwear collection is made up from one button cardigans. The designs are either plain Per Una: Per Una has combined the metallic trend with the trench coat to produce a garment that satisfies both trends. Per Una has also produced other metallic items yet the majority seems to be a combination of long sleeves or two piece items. Per Una: Per Una produced the leather dress which has become a must have item this season. This dress was brought by Victoria Beckham creating a craze for the high street item that has rivaled many similar designer dresses. Findings: Per Una strives to be on trend yet in the team’s findings it is clear that they lack the edge for their designs to be considered on trend. Many of the designs have the hint of catwalk trends yet seem to cool down so that they appear as safer options for the consumer. The lengths of the skirts and dresses seem to be more fitting for the more mature woman and do not satisfy the younger market which Per Una is trying to target. Place Marks and Spencer are expanding their overall space by â€Å"15-20% with new or extended stores out of town, on retail parks and in city centres† over the next five years. â€Å"The objective is to be in the right place with the right space for tomorrow’s customers. † Per Una stores are branded by Italian city names and each brand gives a different combination of styling; Retail Store Analysis This year has seen Marks and Spencer modernise around 40% of their portfolio of stores with â€Å"radical changes† (Marks and Spencer 2007 Annual report pg22) paying attention to how the stores are laid out and how customers are guided through departments. Per Una is always located on the ground floor and is the first department encountered by customers. Per una is in effect a shop within a shop, the hangers, decor and ticketing is different from all Marks and Spencer product. The graphics used on the Per Una department are different in all aspects to the Marks and Spencer graphics. The models, locations and images are all chosen to reflect the Italian roots of the brand. At present the images for the decor were shot in Venice. The Per Una department always has three mannequins styled at the forefront of the department and follows the new boutique layout. The change in layout from original to boutique was undertaken to attract a younger customer through recognition of the boutique shopping trend. Price Per Una follows a relative pricing strategy keeping most products priced around the same margins. Therefore similar styles in the collection are priced around the same price points to keep maintain continuity throughout the brand. They want to attract middle class people so the prices are perfect for them. Per una is less catwalk-led, less expensive and more of a success. It is more influenced by street style than by fashion designer. One range, called Check Mate, consists of tweed, herringbone and wool suits in a largely black, grey and cream palette, with smart and sexy single- and double-breasted jackets from ? 49. 50 and knee-skirts with flared hems for ? 39. 50. The more adventurous dresser can pick from the English Eccentric range, where the tailoring teams orange and brown or pink and green. Other collection of Per Una which is funky, concentrates on denims and tee-shirts starts from ? 15. The collection also includes co-ordinates shoes and accessories, fragrance and tights, including fishnets and textured are not very expensive. This collection is affordable to all and specially the target market Per Una is trying to attract. Promotion Strategy Janet Innes from Per Una marketing executive department states that during this year Per Una has used an assembly of different promotion strategies. One of many this year is their collaborating with breast cancer in their nightwear collection. Per Una always have a monthly clearance sale so they can make room for new stock and trend. At the moment Per Una have a special offer online at 3 for 2. Special look books and press packs for national press and fashion journalists are also handed out. This Christmas attractive gift bags for the beauty collection are launched. (Innes, J,2007) Per Una advertising The report has identified a small promotional film shot in Venice, displayed behind cash desk to entertain shoppers. More prolific advertising for MS, which contains Per Una garments, does not credit the label for being a brand within a brand. Which subsequently contributes to the brand’s lost identity. The team believes the concept for the video originated from their Italian roots. This shows how an idea transpires into media. At present our findings conclude that Per Una has not produced a national advertising campaign. SWOT ANALYSIS Strengths Among the internal capabilities that aid Per Una’s ability to achieve long and short-term objectives are: †¢ Greater Brand Perception: The origins of the primary designs are derived from the Italian catwalks, thus Per Una have gained a perceived competitive edge regarding the level of fashion for the consumer. †¢ Per Una provides a great diversity of products, inclusive of an electrical range of accessories. Moreover Per Una does everything right from jumpers to evening gowns and cocktail dresses. Value for Money spent assured: Per Una strictly adheres to its high quality standards. George Davies himself supervises every aspect of production. †¢ Greater control over the supply process: Per Una controls every aspect of the supply chain including presentation and branding within the store. †¢ A new model now being emulated by capsule collect ions from M S aim to cut lead times from design studio to store display to as little as 15 days; in order to compete with the other trendy â€Å"fast fashion† companies like Zara, Hennes Mauritz and Top Shop. The strengths obtained from an overview of the companies current situational benefits, and key issues reflect back well on the mission statements. These are some major strength to rely on when implementing the marketing plan. Weakness †¢ Lost customer identity: Per Una was targeting an age group of 25-35 year old but sadly the majority of shoppers are 35-55 year olds. Hence there is a huge problem regarding size and styles because the size and style of 30 year old wouldn’t be the right choice for 60 year olds. †¢ Low Brand Awareness: Per Una is lacking behind in advertisements. There is a low awareness among people about Per Una. †¢ Damaged Reputation: Per Una is a part of a fashion famished brand MS. There is a general idea among the young shoppers that MS is not trendy and stylish. †¢ Undifferentiated Products: Per Una’s product do not have any uniqueness about them. Its products are just same as that of its competitors (Next, Wallis, Principles, John Lewis and Monsoon). The prices are also not competitive enough particularly in this age of â€Å"disposable fashion†. These weaknesses were identified with particularly within the competitive context. Opportunities It is recommended that Per Una exploit the following opportunities identified by the report; †¢ Higher demand for â€Å"fast fashion†. †¢ Growing interest in socially responsible products †¢ A developing market such as the internet Threats Per Una must recognise and overcome the threats which the report has identified. †¢ Intense competition †¢ Market fragmentation †¢ Price wars with competitors †¢ Lack competitors established reputation Strategies needs to be improved Market penetration = existing products to customers in existing markets. MS is by far the leading retailer for the over 45 year-olds, and Per Una already has the strongest appeal among the 45 – 55 year-old age group; thus they are increasing unit and monetary sales and also simultaneously reinforcing the brands ( Per Una and MS’s) strength in each market. Per Una also have to strengthen the consumer’s relationship with the brand by establishing more product ties. Product development = new products/product variants to customers in existing markets (this only works when you can develop a steady stream of product innovations appropriate for the needs of customers in those markets. Per Una have done this by creating an electrical accessory line, their petite range, and jewellery line as well as others. Marketing development = marketing existing products in NEW markets and segments. Such a strategy has been employed by Per Una – building on the popularity of the established name of Marks Spencer and George David, and building on th e popularity of their staple products, (jeans, underwear†¦. ) allowing the company to expand their customer base by segment; penetrating a younger market. Diversification = marketing new products in new markets or segments. The findings, which the report has derived from store analysis, indicate the retail environment can be improved in a number of ways in order to improve customer satisfaction. The majority of Per Una customers questioned sourced a number of weaknesses with the actual layout of garments; the range of clothes cannot be easily sited due to overcrowding. This is a fundamental flaw. Recommendations By having their initial target customer age of 25 to 35 years, yet having actual customers of 45 years and over, it has confused them as a brand, and as a result they no longer have a clear identity. Not only does this restrict the staff from moving forward on what can be done to improve the company, but it also means that particular customers, for example the younger target customer base, are reluctant to shop there as they assume Per Una is for the older women. There are several options that could be considered to re-establish their identity. 1. Firstly, they could simply change their target customer age to 45 years and over. However, this is likely to alienate their existing and potential younger customers. Furthermore, by doing this it is quite unlikely they would attract any new customers just by changing their target age. 2. Secondly, they could change the style of their clothing so that it would appeal more to a younger customer aged 25 – 35 years old rather than 45 and upwards. Though, this opposite approach to the first suggestion would then alienate the huge percentage of older female customers. Therefore this is unlikely to be a successful change to the company. 3. Finally, Per Una could try and change the shape and fit of some of their clothes to appeal to younger women. In addition to this, include advertising over both young and older women modeling Per Una together, so that both type of customer base can be satisfied. By choosing this third option, it could draw in further sales and profit from their initial target customer who Per Una were not satisfying previously, without alienating the customers they already have. Having done this, Per Una would have a clear impression of who their target customers are, and how to meet their different needs. Appendix Marketing Audit: Pestle Analysis This table represents the macro factors that pose threats to Per Una and Marks and Spencer. Political |Textile restriction law | |Environmental |Fair Trade | | |Organic products | | |Recyclable/bio degradable products and packaging | | |Global warming | |Social |Size zero debate | | |Demographic changes | | |Consumer shopping habits | |Technological |Internet | | |Improved transport links | |Legal |New employment laws: | | |(1) Rise in minimum wage | | |(2) Change to holiday entitlements | | |(3) Change to maternity and adoption leave | |Economical |Interest rate rises | | |Consumer debt | | |Strength of the UK pound | Spicc Analysis Below is an analysis of the macro factors that are closer to Per Una as a brand and that affect their business. |Suppliers |Per Una suppliers have been kept secret due to contractual agreements | |Publics |Financial publics: the financial situation of MS | | |Media publics: all media published that contains any reference to Per Una| | |as brand or MS as a company | | |Government publics: development of product safety, truth in advertising | | |etc. | |General public: This opinion affects the consumers buying habits within | | |the brand | | |Internal publics: George Davis | |Intermediaries |Marks and Spencer- stocks range and host store for brand | |Consumers |Consumer needs: quality, value, on trend clothing in desired size | |Competition |Next Directory- home shopping | | |Primark- disposable fashion | Micro Environment The below is an analysis of Per Una’s micro-environment. |Men |Approximately 75,000 staff at Marks and Spencer within 520 UK stores. | | |Unable to clarify number of staff working for Per Una only as they are employed by | | |Marks and Spencer within one company. | | |Productivity, (â€Å"the number of individual items sold per full-time member of staff in| | |clothing and home†) increased by 12. 2% during the year. † | |Money |423. million sales for Per Una in 2006/07 | | |Last year sales rose by 9. 7% to ? 7. 98bn | |Machines |Sourcing offices in Hong Kong, Shanghai covering China and the Far East. | |Material |‘Look behind the label’ campaign – showed how Marks Spencer were guarantee all | | |products were being produced responsibly | | |Plan A â€Å"5 year ? 00m ‘eco plan’ launched in January 2007†, 100 commitments made | | |across 5 areas, including; | | |â€Å"Becoming carbon neutral† | | |â€Å"Sending no wa ste to landfill† | | |â€Å"Cutting our packaging by a quarter† | | |â€Å"Only using fish and wood from sustainable sources† | | |Working â€Å"closely with local communities through our ‘Marks Start work experience | | |program† | |Management |George Davies founded Per Una in September 2001, but sold the brand to MS in 2006 | | |for ? 125m. Though still a designer for the company. | | |Stuart Rose is the Chief executive of Marks Spencer. | |Marketing |(See Marketing Mix) | (Marks and Spencer’s annual report 2007)

Overproduction And Its Weakness Essays - Stock Market, Free Essays

Overproduction And Its Weakness Essays - Stock Market, Free Essays Overproduction and its Weakness There were many problems that occurred as soon as WWI ended. Such as overproduction. Overproduction was going on all through the war, and it did not stop as soon as the war came to an end. The reason overproduction came into effect in the first place, was because america had to feed the soldiers and the allies, therefore, the goverment constantly pushed farmers to grow more crops. When the war was over, instead of decreasing the crop amount, farmers grew the same number of crops. Not as many people were in America, therefore, less people bought less amounts of food. In order for people to buy more food, the goverment believed that if the prices plummeted, the sales would increase, unfortunately, it did not happen that way. Overproduction not only hurt the farmers, but it also hurt the rest of the economy. Since the food was not selling well, the stores began to order less food from the farmers. Since the farmers were not making quite as much money, they had to do either of the three following things: A) Lay off workers B) Reduce their pay C) Cut down on maintenance of machinery. If any of those possibilities were done, then the workers would not have extra spending money. Therefore, they would not be able to go to the store and buy as much food as necessary, therefore, the gradual domino effect continued. Overproduction not only hurt the manufaturers but it also greatly hurt the citizens that lived in the USA. Overproduction was also one of the leading ?sparke? that set of the Great Depression. __________________________________________________________ Essay #2 The Stock Market Crash of 1929 In the 1920?s many people relied on the stock market. Many people wanted to get rich fast, others just wanted to get some extra cash. It was believed that the easiest way to do so was to invest in the stock market. The stock market works in the following way: A person believes that a certain company is doing very well, therefore, that person goes out and buys himself a share (a portion) of the company. In order for the person to own a share, he must have enough money to buy it. Unless, this person decides to buy on margin, which means loaning money from the bank, when you earn the money back, you promise to repay the bank. After the investor buys his portion, he begins to see that it is going up in cost. Right then he knows that he must go sell it for a price higher than he bought it for. This process was thought to be a ?get rich scheme.? Many people invested in the stocks and prospered greatly Others lost everything that they had due to the stock market.. Some of the people that bought these stocks were taking a big risk. They usually bought the stock for a very short term. They would buy and sell the stock(s) very quickly hoping to make millions of dollars. Therefore, without thinking about it, they would buy the stocks on margin, assuming that they would get loads of, money and be able to pay the banks back in full. Unfortunately, thus was not always true. If the week the investor bought a share and it plummeted, the owner or investor would lose all the money he invested in this small share. He would not be able to repay the bank, this put the investor in debt. Before 1929, all was well. People put money into the market, and most of the time they prospered. Since the market was doing so exceptionally well, it was named the ?Bull Market.? People did not think that others would stop buying shares, therefore, many invested their life-savings. Unfortunately, in the summer of 1929, all turned against the investors. People began to get more cautious with their money. They saw that the prices of shares were dropping, so they did not feel the need to buy anymore stock. Others just lost most of their money in this small gamble. Those who lost the money were usually also in debt with the bank. The bank was losing its money thanks to the speculators, the ?get rich quick people.? People began to sense the great dangers of the banks losing its money, they sensed that if the bank lost enough money they would go out of business On Black Tuesday, the stock market crashed due to the loss of its investors. People

Employee rights and employee responsibilities Essay

Employee rights and employee responsibilities - Essay Example Human Resource Management (HRM) Departments face six challenges.First,HRM must plan for organizations,jobs,and people. An organization's top management works with HR managers to seamlessly link resources to organizational strategies and objectives. A company's human resources is a vital, if not the most vital component of the organization, and this human resource pool must function in a way aligned to the organization's goals. Second, HRM must be able to get the required human resources into the organization. New employees need to be recruited, positions must be filled either through new recruits or by transferring or promotion from within the organization. In performing this function, the company through HRM must comply with employment laws, such as the equal opportunity law. Third, HRM should build employee performance. Employees must be trained either formally or informally on methods. They must be motivated to improve their performances through total quality management programs, self-management programs and other programs that enhance the quality of work. Fourth, HRM should reward employees for good performance. Employee appraisal systems should be developed and monitored. Fair and effective ways to reward good performance should be developed and implemented. Direct and indirect compensation programs must be put in place to form part of rewards. Fifth, HRM should oversee its human resources with health and safety programs, good employee relations, participation in collective bargaining with unionized employees, and control employee turnover such that valued employees are kept in the payroll. And sixth, HRM must manage resources at the multi-national or multicultural level. With increasing diversity in the workplace coupled with the globalization of businesses, HRM must be able to integrate HR practices that are applicable in different cultures and legal systems (Burnham, 2003). 2. What are some of the reasons why affirmative action remains controversial Affirmative action involves taking positive steps to increase the representation of women and minorities in areas of employment, education, and business from which they have been historically excluded (SEP, 2005). When affirmative action involves preferential treatment by basis of race, gender, religion or ethnicity, affirmative action generates controversy. While some experts believe that preferential treatment of women and other racial minorities sort of compensates for discrimination against them in the past, other experts believe that preferential treatment of minorities today, benefits individuals who have not experienced past wrongs while burdening individuals who were not responsible for past wrongs, thus tantamount to reverse discrimination. Another reason for the controversy is that the Civil Rights Act provides that no person shall be discriminated upon or denied employment on the basis of sex, race, religion or national origin, but it does not actually mandate affirmative action. And thus, the debate and controversy goes on, since various legal and administrative rules require affirmative action yet this is not grounded on the provisions of the constitution. 3. Compare and contrast three approaches to job analysis: (1) functional job analysis (FJA); (2) the position analysis questionnaire (PAQ); and (3) the critical incident technique (CIT). The functional job analysis (FJA) approach was developed by the U.S. Training and Employment Service. It utilizes an inventory of the various types of functions or work activities that can constitute any job. FJA assumes that each job involves performing certain functions related to data, people and things. The three categories are subdivided to form worker-function scales. The position analysis questionnaire approach (PAQ) is a quantifiable data collection method covering 194 different worker-oriented tasks. Using a five-point scale, the PAQ seeks to determine the degree, if any, to which the different